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Getting books to school pupils in Africa - Education Research Paper No. 26, 1998, 134 p. [Previous Page] [Table of Contents] [Next Page] Chapter three - School libraries: Mali
Background Amadou Békaye SIDIBÉ BackgroundSocio-economic and political context Mali is a landlocked country situated in the heart of West Africa. It covers an area of 1,240,000 sq. km, and has common borders with seven countries: Niger and Burkina Faso to the east, Senegal and Mauritania to the west, Guinea and Ivory Coast to the south, and Algeria to the north. According to the 1994 census it had a population of 10,443,000 with a growth rate of 3% over the period 1990-1994. The bulk of this population, which is expected to reach 12 million by 1999 and 25.5% of whom are under 15 years of age, is rural (74% as against 26% for the urban population). It is made up of such ethnic groups as the Bambara, Fula, Senufo, Bobo, Tuareg, etc. which give the country an unparalleled diversity and cultural richness. Economically, Mali is a very poor country. Its economy depends essentially on the agricultural sector (42% of GNP) and the tertiary sector (43% of GNP), with the industrial sector contributing only 15%. In 1994 the Gross National Product (GNP) was estimated at US$1,871 million and the per capita income at US$250. Since 1982 Mali has been subject to quite a strict International Monetary Fund structural adjustment programme. This programme has obliged and encouraged many state employees to take retirement. It has also led to the introduction of an entry competition to slow down the influx of young graduates into the civil service. That is why librarianship is suffering from such a shortage of specialists. Instead of recruiting, the authorities prefer to make transfers within the administrative or teaching staff to provide management for the libraries. From a historical viewpoint, Mali is the heir to great empires, such as that of Ghana in the 13th century. In the 10th and 11th centuries Islam began to enter the northern part of the country, becoming strongly established there. In the 14th and 15th centuries relations with the Arab world were enriched and consolidated. It was also at this time that Mali established its first universities, for example the University of Timbuktu. Those centuries also saw its first great writers and translators of Arabic documents. In 1850 the systematic colonization of Africa began. Frenchmen such as Faidherbe, Galliéni and others gradually invaded Malian territory. They met with fierce resistance from kings and emperors such as Samory Touré, El Hadj Omar Tall and others. But thanks to their state of the art technology and their war policy (divide and rule) they were victorious. The French went on to despoil Mali of most of its cultural wealth. Precious copies of the Koran, for example, were carried off. Between 1909 and 1915 revolts broke out (by the Bobo, Beledougou, and the Kunta) but these were unable to overthrow the colonial government. And so the political struggle took over. The US-RDA party was established. Demands were stepped up. Faced with this, in 1956, the Loi Gaston Defferre or loi-cadre (framework law), authorizing the establishment of semi-autonomous governments in the colonies, was promulgated. On 17 January 1959 Mali and Senegal formed a federation, which declared Independence in June 1960. In August the federation broke down and Mali gained Independence on 22 September 1960. In 1962 the first president, Modibo Keita, reformed the educational system, a reform which became the cornerstone of education in Mali. In 1968 Modibo Keita was overthrown by the military, headed by Moussa Traoré. The people, weary of the economic crisis that the country was suffering and exhausted by the exactions committed by the government militia, began to hope, but the hope was unassuaged for twenty-three years as the military were unable to bring prosperity to the country. On the contrary, during this period, state affairs were not well managed. Under Moussa Traoré the 1962 reform was revised, amended, adapted and readapted several times. But, alas, to no purpose. On 26 March 1991 the people once again revolted and overthrew the regime of Moussa Traoré. Multi-partyism was introduced and the press diversified. Hope once again filled people's hearts, the hope of seeing all the country's children getting an education. Educational policies and practices Mali inherited an inadequate educational system which was designed to train administrators and clerks who would help the colonizer better establish his rule. The ambition was not to promote and extend education to as many as possible of the indigenous population but to train assistants won over to the European cause. On gaining Independence, Mali had to train cadres to ensure its administration and manage its economy, in short, to make its Independence effective. To achieve that, required effective, rapid, mass education, hence the reform of the educational system in 1962. This reform set out five general principles: · mass quality education; The 1962 reform was revised and corrected in 1964 by the first seminar on education which recommended: · adapting curricula to national realities; The schools needed to be brought closer to the people. This was not an easy task as the heritage left by the colonizer was very meagre. In 1959, for example, Sudan (Mali) had 351 schools with 1,183 classes. In these classes, 54,136 pupils were studying at the basic level out of a school-age population of 569,700. At the secondary level there were 1,080 pupils and at the higher level 111 students in France and at Dakar. The percentage of enrolment amongst the school-age population was 9.5%, the lowest in French West Africa. However, with the help of the Soviet Union the reform soon bore fruit, as the shown in Table 1. Table 1. School enrolment at basic level, 1959-1968 (end of rule of Modibo Keita)
The percentage enrolled in schools rose from 9.5% to 22.4% in nine years, a remarkable achievement. And yet this success was short-lived. Galloping population growth and economic difficulties created a gap between the people and the ruling US-RDA party. The schools suffered the effects of this. In 1968 the military took power and the quest for lasting solutions to the education crisis began. With this aim in mind, Malian schools underwent numerous reforms (in 1970, 1978, 1985). In 1978 the government allocated 14% of the national budget to education. Despite these efforts the schools continued to decline. Student strikes became more common. They were put down without mercy. Teachers in some areas went months without being paid. To find a means of livelihood they migrated to neighbouring countries such as Ivory Coast and Gabon, to mention only two. This migration was called 'the brain drain'. Currently the UNDP Tokten programme is funding the participation of this diaspora in building the country. Between 1968 and 1991 the school enrolment ratio varied between 18.9% and 27.56%. The basic level of education is made up of two cycles: · the first cycle lasting six years which ends with an examination and the issuing of the Certificate of Primary Studies (CEP); These two cycles constitute the basis of education in Mali. In 1995 they comprised 1,523 public schools and 209 private ones for the first cycle and 264 public and 17 private for the second cycle. In the same year, there were 552,891 pupils, an average of 52 to 69 pupils per class and the first cycle had 8,162 teachers. Education at the secondary level lasts three years in the lycées and two to four years in the professional schools. The lycées prepare pupils for university entrance; a pupil specializes either in the sciences or in the humanities. The professional schools offer training in such subjects as accountancy, building, business studies, etc. Since 1991 there have been many seminars on education; recommendations have been made and they are in the process of being implemented. For example, in 1996 an action plan was adopted to reduce the repetition rate from 30% to 15%, and to reach a school enrolment rate of 50%. With regard to what has been achieved, it can be said that major efforts are currently being made to increase the number of schools. At the secondary level, in the framework of the creation of schools, five lycées (academic secondary schools) were opened between 1995 and 1997, bringing the number of lycées to 19. But as for the quality of education, it is generally agreed that it is deteriorating. The repetition rate remains high (28%), as does the rate of exclusion. In 1995, the pass rate at the end of the first cycle examination was 59% and for the second cycle, 47.97%. These figures compare with around 12% in both cycles in 1987, 49% and 35% in 1988 and 58% and 41% in 1994. Today, amongst the many problems that Malian schools are facing, the most serious one remains strikes. Since 1991 these strikes have meant that schools have not been able to get through the curriculum. Let us be objective - there is no point drawing up valuable curricula that can take schools to a glorious future, if they cannot be fully implemented. Information provision Libraries in Mali have tended to be privileged places of cultural development and to be concentrated in Bamako, the capital. There school pupils have access to the libraries provided by the French and American Cultural Centres, specialist children's libraries and the National Library. In 1977, OLP (Opération Lecture Publique - Operation Popular Reading) was launched. It is a Franco-Malian project, supported financially by French cooperation services, located in the Division of Cultural Heritage, within the National Directorate of Arts and Culture. Its aim is to promote reading throughout Mali, by setting up a public library in each of the 46 circles (administrative divisions) into which Mali was then divided and to train librarians to manage the libraries. Small reading and activity centres for children have been set up by OLP in some localities, but their functioning is not very effective. More successful in meeting the needs of children has been a project establishing centres for reading and child activity (CLAEC - Centres de Lecture et d'Animation pour les Enfants). Restricted to Bamako, it is the result of a twinning agreement with Angers in France. That town has created and equipped, in the six communes of Bamako, six CLAECs. The communes, on their part, agree to upkeep the premises, provide staff and maintain the services. There is a management committee in each commune. The libraries are well used by school children from the first cycle. There are also children's libraries within the enclosure of the National Library (initiated by OLP) and the French Cultural Centre. The National Library is open to all. Home loan is possible on registration. An examination of loan records over a fortnight showed that some 35 loans had been made by school pupils, mainly from nearby lycées and predominantly by those studying the sciences. School libraries The earliest schools in the French Sudan (Mali) came into existence at the end of the 19th century. With the advent of Independence in 1960 and especially after the 1962 reform, these schools were reformed and adapted to the new demands. For example, the College Technique became the Lycée Technique, the école d'Administration du Soudan the Ecole Nationale d'Administration. Naturally, new schools were built. But it was not until the 1970s that the first school libraries appeared. Today, a look at what has happened to these libraries leads us to a bitter conclusion. For schools at the basic level, libraries are virtually non-existent. The few information units that do exist in them lack suitable premises. Nor are they managed by professional librarians. The libraries of the first and second cycles of basic education are often made up of 50 to a 100 items kept in a cupboard or two in the head's office. Use of them amounts to no more than the distribution of such items as are available amongst pupils at the beginning of the school year. The number of items is totally insufficient, and so one textbook is given to two or even three pupils whose families live near one another. The pupils, usually those in examination classes, who thus enjoy an annual home loan, must return the items borrowed before the last tests. The holdings of libraries are enriched by gifts from twinned towns or schools. There is minimal participation by the Ministry of Basic Education in the constitution of these information units. At the secondary level, the situation is less dramatic. Most institutions at this level have a library. There are however a few exceptions. Amongst these, mention might be made of Lycée D. Konaré in Kayes, whose library was burned down by the pupils in 1996, the five new lycées and some private lycées (Lycée Konary, for example). But these libraries suffer from the same problems as their counterparts at the basic level, that is: · lack of suitable premises; Relations with the outside world are limited to those maintained with twinned towns or schools. Most of the librarians in the basic and secondary cycles are unaware of the International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA) and therefore have never enjoyed the services of that body. Although the libraries of the secondary level are members of AMBAD (Association Malienne des Bibliothécaires, Archivistes et Documentalistes - Malian Association of Librarians, Archivists and Documentalists), this association has been able to achieve little for lack of funds. MethodologyThe library collections of Ecole Nationale d'Administration, Centre Djoliba, and the National Office for Statistics and Information were searched for general information on Mali and on its education system. Interviews were made with the directors of studies, librarians and pupils of those lycées which had been selected for case studies. Information was also obtained from pupils with the help of a questionnaire, designed for that purpose. In fact nothing has been written about school libraries in Mali. It is hoped that this research will provide a basis for further research. 'A library in every school' programmeThis new programme aims to establish libraries in schools at the basic level, where, as we have seen, there is little or no access to reading materials. Origins Until the 1990s there was no planned creation of libraries at the basic level. It is only in the last few years that OLP, which had already achieved its main targets in the public library field, began creating some libraries in schools, with the support of the local population. In this way twenty libraries were built and equipped all over the country. Among them mention may be made of the library in the school at Missira in Bamako. But OLP, which does not come under the Ministry of National Education, could not carry on creating libraries in schools. A farther reason was the fact that the OLP had insufficient funds since it depended on the French Co-operation Mission. That is why it felt it necessary to combine its efforts with those of the Ministry of Education where the idea of 'A library in every school' had already taken root. But in doing so, the original concept of the Ministry of Education was considerably improved. Whilst initially it consisted of equipping each school with a book cupboard, it now means the creation of a library in the full sense of the word. OLP contacted the French Co-operation Mission to have the funding for the new project. The Mission approved the request and a protocol of agreement was signed between it, the Ministry of Basic Education, the OLP and the Comité Editorial Bamakois (CEBA) on 15 March 1997. The OLP provides the technical aspect of the programme. A Cell responsible for the Management of Libraries in Basic Schools was set up. For a start, given the shortage of funds, the Cell set the short-term target of creating ten school libraries. Criteria were laid down for designating the schools that would be the first to benefit from these libraries. This programme is the first government structure for libraries at the basic level of education. Criteria In order to benefit from the creation of a library within the school, the latter must meet the following conditions: · it must have first and second cycles; Through the Cell, the programme looks after the training in documentary techniques of the teacher who is nominated. It also endows the library with 255 books and ensures the co-ordination of all the libraries in the network. Despite these constraining conditions for schools and their localities, demand for libraries has been very strong. The people have shown themselves happy to commit themselves to the programme and they have done so to the satisfaction of the programme decision-makers. An example of this commitment is Torokorobougou, a district of Bamako, which equipped a splendid room for its school library, costing over US$2,000. Finance On the one hand, the programme is funded by the French Co-operation Mission. This institution has shown itself to be very interested in the development of documentation and information in Mali. It funds the OLP and the whole network of libraries that this embraces. The Réseau Malien de Documentation (REMADOC) is also dependent on it. For 'A library in every school' programme, the Mission made available to the Cell a sum of 15 million CFA Francs (US$30,000). Of this sum 53.5% (8 million CFA Francs) will be devoted to the purchase of books. The rest will be invested in training librarians and in creating, equipping and operating the Cell. On the other hand, the programme is supported financially by the people. This support from the people is vital if the programme's objectives are to be attained rapidly. This support need not be limited to satisfying the conditions laid down for schools to benefit from the creation of a library (chairs, tables, book shelves etc.). The localities can go further if they have the means, for example by buying books on the spot. For that they could draw not only on their own resources but also on those of people from the areas who live in the big cities or overseas. Current state of libraries in the programme In less than a year after the launch of the programme, the people have made considerable efforts in providing facilities. According to the person in charge of the Cell, Mr Tamboura, the ten libraries scattered across the country are already equipped. The librarians have all been through the training course. The first supply of 2,550 books is available at the Cell and will soon be delivered to the libraries. Of the books ordered, 18.4%, 470 books, were provided by Malian publishers (Figuier, Jamana, DNAFLA, etc.). This not only supports the country's publishing industry but at the same time reduces the proportion of books not adapted to Malian realities. The ten libraries are expected to be operational by March 1998. The first, at Torokorobougou was opened on 3 February 1998. It should be noted that the distribution of the first libraries is uneven. As shown in Table 2, of the eight regions of Mali, only schools in five will receive a library in this first phase of the programme. The regions of Gao, Tombouctou (Timbuktu) and Kidal do not appear. It is hoped that the second phase which envisages the creation of 20 new libraries will fill this gap. Table 2. Distribution of first libraries in the 'A library in every school' project
Evaluation The libraries are not yet operational and it is therefore not possible to provide data on user satisfaction, impact or long term sustainability. What however is apparent at this point is that the population, the teachers and the pupils much appreciate and encourage the establishment of libraries in the schools. All are aware of the importance of libraries and reading in the educational system. That is why, when talking about the low intellectual level of pupils, the parents all say that they do not read. This absence of a reading culture, especially at the basic level, is due not to a lack of will on the part of pupils but to the non-existence of access to reading materials. In a country such as Mali, where parents' income is quite inadequate to build up personal libraries for their children, the establishment of school libraries is bound to be supported. On the other hand 'A library in every school' project is very ambitious given the state's rather limited means. Ten schools now have libraries; another 20 are planned. But there are over 1,700 schools at the first cycle and around 280 at the second cycle. And the creation of libraries in itself is meaningless if every effort is not made to supply them regularly with up-to-date items and materials and to ensure the continued training of their librarians. It is for that reason that the Cell is currently seeking sponsors (NGOs, national or international associations, foundations etc.) and donors. It hopes to establish fruitful and diversified long-term co-operation with them. Self-sustainability is not envisaged. Libraries at the secondary levelLibraries of three secondary schools were examined. Library of Lycée Askia Mohammed (formal name: Bibliothèque du Lycée Askia Mohammed) Lycée Askia Mohammed (LAM) is one of the leading educational institutions in Mali. It was established in 1915, long before Independence. Situated in Bamako, it is certainly the country's largest lycée. In 1997/98, Lycée Askia Mohammed had 2,170 pupils who are being taught by 87 teachers. Despite several investigations, it has not been possible to establish the exact date of the establishment of the library at LAM. But according to some sources, it was set up in the 1970s. The LAM library is, of course, intended to meet the information needs of the pupils, teachers and administrative staff of the body which runs it. Collection development The collection is very poor. It only totals 991 items, equal to 0.45 items per pupil. Subject distribution is given in Table 3. All areas are covered The library does not subscribe to any serials. The book stock increases essentially through gifts which are by definition irregular. It is therefore impossible to say by how much it is rising each year. According to one of the librarians, Mrs Coulibaly Dady, the library used to receive 300 items a year in the framework of the BSU (Bibliothèques Scolaires et Universitaires) project initiated in 1984 by OLP and the Department of National Education; but this project ended three years ago and since then the library has not received any items. In fact over two-thirds of the stock is made up of items from the 1970s and 1980s. Staffing There are two full-time librarians. They were trained on OLP's 15 day introduction to library management. They have not been on any training course since 1994. Physical facilities The reading room is very small. It is poorly equipped and has only 51 chairs, nine reading tables and three cupboards. That means it cannot even accommodate one-twentieth of the pupils. The books are arranged on five metal shelves. There is no manual card index for users. A loan desk is situated at the entrance to the library. The library has no typewriter which, had it existed, would have been of great help in preparing bibliographical slips and drafting correspondence. Table 3. LAM library collection by subject
Services There is direct access to the collection. For the pupils, all they have to do is present their valid student card in order to use the library's services. Users from outside the institution who are not pupils are required to present a valid civil card. The library is open when students are in class. Despite the poverty of the library, use of the collection is regular and encouraging. The two librarians receive an average of 60 visitors a day. They give 37-43 consultations a day on the spot. There is not much home lending given the lack of stock and the desire to enable the maximum number of readers to benefit from the library's services. Lending is chiefly to teachers for the preparation of their courses. The library does not produce any bibliography or leaflet to give readers information about its collection. The library is not computerized. There is no photocopier or binding equipment. That means that the library has no source of income. User satisfaction A user survey was conducted on 30 pupils and 10 teachers. Readers were not satisfied with their library. Findings included: · 98% felt that the collection was very poor. They also asserted that the little that does exist is too old to meet the needs of the late 20th century; To sum up, the findings of the survey showed that the most serious problems of the LAM library remain the poverty of the collection, the lack of opportunities for training and further training for librarians and the lack of co-operation with other libraries at the secondary level. Library of the Lycée des Jeunes Filles (Lycée Ba Aminata Diallo) The Lycée des Jeunes Filles (Girls' Lycée) was set up on 4 February 1951. It is situated in Bamako. In 1997/98 there were 1,789 pupils, taught by 88 teachers, including both permanent and contract teachers. Collection development According to the stock register there are estimated to be 2,851 items. However, this figure needs to be revised downwards as the stock register does not reflect losses and withdrawals of items. Of this total number of items, 2,451 books have been recorded, processed and arranged in cupboards. The rest (400 books), after being recorded, were directly put on the shelves. The latter are made up solely of textbooks and are lent to students for home use during the school year. The collection covers such subjects as history, geography, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, languages (French, English, German, Russian), linguistics and philosophy. The library has no budget of its own. It can therefore make no purchases of items even annually. The collection increases thanks to gifts. The chief donors are: · OLP. In the framework of the BSU project, OLP used to give libraries 300 items a year. That project came to an end in 1994 and since then the library of the Lycée des Jeunes Filles no longer has a source for acquiring items; Staffing The library is managed on a day to day basis by three librarians, all teachers by training. These librarians attended a fortnight-long course given by OLP in 1985 and 1986. Since then none of them has attended any, course provided by any source whatsoever. Physical facilities The library consists of a single room, which was renovated in 1986 by OLP. It is equipped with six reading tables, 36 chairs, six shelves, two cupboards and two work posts. A loan book keeps a check of home loans. There is direct access to the collection and so there is no manual card index for users. Materials (pens, sticking tape, glue, covering, cards, labels etc.) are supplied by OLP and the school management. Services The library receives 30 - 40 visitors a day. It used to lend books on home loan for the whole school year. Such loans were recorded in the textbook register in which the name of the borrower was entered. Home loans have been halted because of the endless transfers of students and teachers to other establishments. All readers may consult items on the spot. The busiest times continue to be the break and recreation times. However, the library is only open during school hours, 8.00 AM - midday and 3.00 PM - 5.00 PM. User satisfaction Group interviews and a survey were conducted to assess satisfaction with the stock and services of the library. It emerges from the findings that the collection is well used. Some textbooks are consulted two to four times a day. According to the loan register the use to which the collection is put is very high (80%). Despite that, the percentage of dissatisfied users remained high: · 90% considered the collection lacked the books they required. Because of this, the pupils cannot meet all the demands of academic life. For example, the lecture topics in lycées in literature are: the meeting of cultures, colonization, money, etc. It appears that none of these topics is sufficiently covered by the collection. This means that the teacher is forced to give the students more time so that everyone can read the one or two items recommended for the lecture. This state of affairs does not allow teachers to do the maximum of practical work so as to underpin the students' theoretical knowledge; Library of the Lycée Technique The Lycée Technique came into existence in 1962 following the reform of the College Technique, which had also been created in 1948 by the colonial government. The Lycée Technique is currently an institution with a good reputation. In 1997/98 it had 1,315 pupils. Courses are given by 94 teachers, of whom 24 are on contract. Collection development The library is estimated to contain 6,232 items, spread amongst subjects ranging from history and geography, reading, technology, mathematics, physics and chemistry. The collection is made up essentially of books (98%), but there are a few journals: Le Courier, Cacao, Deutschland, Les Temps Nouveaux, etc. The library does not subscribe to them, and they are not acquired on a regular basis. In addition to journals and books there are also 'bandes dessinées' (similar to comic strip books). The collection is predominantly in French. However, there are a few items in English and German. The collection is increasing thanks to gifts from OLP (the BSU project), the city of Angers (France), CODE (Canadian Organization for Development through Education) and individuals. Staffing There is one librarian, who reports to the Director of Studies. Physical facilities The library is not computerized. The room has 72 seats and 14 reading tables. The books are kept in cupboards against the wall, with the journals (about fifty in number) displayed in two display units. Services There is a functioning loan service. The library of the Lycée Technique grants home loans to a small group of readers made up mostly of teachers and administrative staff. Home loans are made for up to a fortnight. As for consultation on the spot, it can be done on all opening days. There is direct access to the collection. Visits are recorded daily in a register. Table 4 gives an extract from this register: Table 4. Visits to the library of Lycée Technique over two weeks
The library receives an average of 83 readers a day, a satisfactory figure. The library of the Lycée Technique leaves a very good impression on all its visitors. Its organization, the decorations on the wall, the reception by the librarian, the relative quality of the collection are certainly enough to explain the rate of use. The room is always full and quite quiet. User satisfaction The users of the library of the Lycée Technique already have a reading culture. The academic demands are high and mastery of technology requires a great deal of research and hence of reading. Each day readers flock to the library. And the librarian is stretched to the limit. She cannot single-handed make home loans and loans on the spot, watch the readers to make sure that they do not leave with items, process the few documents that she receives, etc. Physically, she cannot manage given the number of visitors each day (83 visitors). That is why she has long been trying to get her school management and the school authorities in general to recruit another librarian so that together they can spend more time with readers and speed up the service. The results of a user survey show that: · 52.7% are satisfied with the library's services; An interview with the Director of Studies of the Lycée revealed that four key problems are hampering the proper operation of the library: · the smallness of the premises; ConclusionIn the course of this research on school libraries in Mali, four main problems were detected. These are: · the lack of a budget. This results in the libraries being almost totally dependent on external aid and gifts of books and materials; RecommendationsIn order to remedy the problems listed above, the following recommendations are made: · each school library must be equipped with an autonomous budget. Failing which, it is desirable that in the budget of each institution having a library, provision is made for and a set figure allocated to the library; ReferencesDe la scolarisation des filles au Mali. (1987) Jamana, 13: 36-43. Diallo, M. (1993) Réflexion sur l'ecole malienne. Jamana (Malian cultural review), 34: 10-14. Fremy, D. and M. (1993) QUID 1994. Paris: Editions Robert Laffont: 1076-1077. Institut Pédagogique National. Deuxième Séminaire sur l'Education: documents préparatoires. (1979) Bamako: IPN. Keita, M. K. (1989) Les structures en matière d'information du Ministère des Sports, des Arts et de la Culture et leurs perspectives. Bamako. Mali. Direction Nationale de la Statistique et de l'Informatique. (DNSI) (1993) Quelques Statistiques du Mali. Mali. Ministère de l'Education de Base. (1996) Guide des Nouvelles Pistes. Bamako, AMAP. Sall, A. B. (1986) Quelques reflexions sur le système éducatif malien. Jamana, 10: 24-28. Toure, S. W. (1996) La dynamique de la lecture au Mali. Jamana, 1: 15-19. Traore, Mamadou (ed.) (1996) Atlas du Mali. Paris: Les Editions J. A. The World Book., vol. 13. (1994) Chicago: World Book Inc.
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